Essay on The Department of Homeland security Essay

The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was established by this act of parliament: Homeland security Act of 2002. It was created to consolidate the US executive branch agencies linked to the security of the homeland, into a one cabinet department. It resulted into partnership of 22 agencies into one new and autonomous department. After the investigations of 9/11, the republican government under the presidency of George W. Bush came up with measures to solve the shortcomings of national security. Within a fort night after the terrorist attacks, George W. Bush announced the formation of the office of Homeland security developed to protect US territories from terrorist attacks and offer efficient and effective emergency and intelligence response to potential future natural disasters. The President signed Executive Order 13228 on October 8, 2001 setting up this office with the mission of developing and coordinating the implementation of a detailed national security strategy to prevent the United States from suffering another terrorist attacks The U.S. PATRIOT Act (Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism) is the most important law passed after the 9/11 attack. It is so essential because of the fact that it improves inter-agency cooperation for the collection of intelligence andit’s sharing. This barrier being broken down has contributed to a very large extent the protection of the US. Additionally, it appreciates the fact that the advent of technologyensures that our laws are updated and has encouraged better prosecution of suspected terrorists. Lastly, it has strengthened the existing terrorism legislations, reflecting some specific situations that did not exactly exist previously. These are the things that make the PATRIOT Act a great addition to law enforcement. The Homeland Security Act is the other important piece of legislation. The most vital element was the fact that the multi-crisis management agencies were clustered under one command structure and then given the mandate to work with law enforcement agencies with a nation-wide outlook, as specified in section 101 of the Homeland Security Act (2002). The Homeland Security presidential directives are powers exercised by the president to form a de facto order. While the general vision for homeland security is firmly etched with the Executive branch, the more the details that will fall to the legislative branch. In the period after 9/11, several key legislations were passed. The most important being the U.S. PATRIOT Act,  and the Homeland Security Act of 2002. Executive Orders have for a long time been a technique for a President to de facto come up with a law & further give the details on powers of the E xecutive branch. The 1st Presidential proclamation issued because of an internal issue was the suspension of the writ of habeas corpus by President Lincoln in 1861. This influential order would pave the way for subsequent Presidential actions with regard to terrorists, enemy combatants and saboteurs. The DHS was put under the leadership of Mr. Tom Ridge. Boarder-line security, antiterrorism, disaster preparedness, Immigration, response and recovery are some of the key areas DHS influences. The Department of Homeland Security brought in 22 law enforcement, security and intelligence agencies under one command. Immigration issues are core to the US internal security. In 2003, therefore the department took up the Immigration and Naturalization Service automatically assuming its duties. This action led to the separation of the service and information functions into 2 distinct agencies: Citizenship and Immigration and Immigration and Custom Enforcement services. United States. Homeland security strategy and policy from 2004 until now is marked by the establishment of strategiesformulated correct deficiencies on the general security position of the country. In total 5 new strategies were developed, they are: 1.The Strategy for Homeland Defense and Civil Support, June 2005 2.The National Strategy for Maritime Security, September 2005 3.The National Intelligence Strategy, October 2005 4.The National Counterintelligence Strategy, March 2007 5.The National Strategy for Aviation Security, March 2007 (2010) Each strategy lists objectives that can weigh the effectiveness of the purpose of existing weaknesses in each distinctivearea. As these are strategies, they have to beimplemented with success over the scope of the past 3 years. Two other bills were passed into law in this time period: The Intelligence Community and the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 (IRTPA) and The Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act. The IRPTA matured into a law on December 17, 2004. Most of the recommendations made by the 9/11 Commission were included into this law, dropping the head of the Intelligence Community (IC) from the Director of Central Intelligence (DCI) to the Director of National Intelligence. The National Counter Terrorism  Center was founded. As a foundation for a counter terrorism activities, it brings together all intelligence gathered on terrorist activities & serves as a cleaning house for these matters. As one entity, it has made significant contributions to the successful defense of the nation.

Leadership and Hilton Group Essay

INTRODUCTION Internationalisation of the hotel industry has reached the top of corporate agendas and many hotel chains began to realise that the international business environment is going to be fundamentally different from that of the past and that their HRM strategies require attention. Organisational leadership are numerous, however, the hospitality sector has received a great deal of attention in these, in particular, the links between leadership and delivery of quality at the point of service. The hospitality sector face particular challenges with regard to motivating service staff, who are often working in less well paid positions but who are of vital importance for effective service delivery. Motivational leaders can address this situation in a number of ways, in particular by: * clarifying and promoting organisational goals; * encouraging employees to work towards these goals; * demonstrating excellent performance; and * providing positive feedback to employees. A large part of Hilton’s famous consistency springs from a global approach to training – with the online â€Å"Hilton University† a prime example. This promotes a set of shared values which in turn creates a feeling of pride in working for the company. A lot of emphasis is placed on coaching General Managers to act as good role models for their staff. Theories of leadership & Motivation: The transactional and transformational leadership theories and their related characteristics and behaviours are going to be explored to insure we have positive and successful data to guide future leaders in the hospitality industry. Transactional Leadership- Leadership through the rewards and punishment Transformational Leadership- Leadership through inspiration, passion, and vision. The transformational/transactional leadership dichotomy was introduced by Downton (1973) in his study of political leadership; to Downton, transformational leadership was characterised by a mutually-motivational relationship between leader and follower. Downton contrasted transformational and transactional leadership in his study of the differences among revolutionary, rebellious, reform-oriented and ordinary leaders. This distinction between transformational and transactional leadership orientations was later utilised by Burns in his seminal work. Leadership which examined the political, social, and psychological dimensions of leadership and examined its moral dimensions using Kohlberg’s hierarchy of moral development. Transactional (ordinary) leadership is based on an exchange relationship in which follower compliance (effort, productivity, loyalty) is exchanged for expected rewards. Implementation strategy of firm established annual goals, policies need advice, to motivate and support staff that prepared the allocation strategy can be executed in the Hilton Group plc. This strategy includes to implement ion of cultural support, creating an effective organizational structure, re-direct marketing efforts, preparing budgets, developing and information system and organizational performance, employee compensation uniting. The Hilton’s structure affects the behaviour of people and employee – between the units rivalry, competition for resources, collaborative spirit, teamwork, internal politics and belief system to all affected how people work, how they approach work and hard work will be of course, their performance. Factors that help in implementation of motivation and leadership Hilton are: EFFECTIVENESS & EFFICIENCY Efficiency and Effectiveness with which infrastructure work is effecting, but more importantly of The Hilton’s how-to organisation serves their customers to effective service. Towards disunity, lack of cross-integration of work and inconsistent behaviour of service customers’ perception will affect. ORAGANIZATIONAL CULTURE Hilton’s organizational culture, basic assumptions, values and belief system of the organization as a whole. Various elements of the organizations own culture can be. That, or can display different valuation, in Conflict with corporate culture. The Hilton’s project team could culture their own informal group who may not fully joint with corporate culture. NATIONAL (CORPORATE) CULTURE The Hilton is a big organizational company so its corporate culture, basic assumptions, values and belief system formally includes the head of an organization coalition. Often this means senior officials and enterprise owners, but staff members (co-operatives) may include Trade unions and government. Basic beliefs, values and beliefs of the founder of an organization can affect an organization’s major coalition organization long after they have left. ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT FOR HILTON GROUP PLC FOR MOTIVATION: The Hilton’s Organization development research we could considered Kurt Lewin’s 3-step model. In this model demonstrated the most effective group norms and consensus decision-making to separate and organisational behaviour. This model it can be also research programmes included load indicators and the effect of group discussion and commitment in changing eating habits. The process of change comprises of three stages:  · Unfreezing: create the initial motivation to change by convincing staff of the undesirability of the present situation;  · The change process itself: mainly concerned with identifying what the new behaviour or norm should be. This stage will often involve new information being communicated and new attitudes, culture and concepts being adopted.  · Refreezing or stabilising the change: implying reinforcement of the new pattern of work or behaviour by rewards (praise etc.). Develop the belief that the changed situation satisfies organisational and personal values. 1. We can show steps include in plan revolution processes.As a cyclical process of an Organisation Development research change is shown. Round circle working with clients and representative of change recruited by the work begins with a series of planning. A primary diagnosis of the main component of this stage, data collection, outcome feedback, and added combine action plan. In the language of systems article, this step contribution, the customer systems as yet unknown is alert of the problems, shows the effect of changes required to help output, maybe the problem-solving and agency process is with the ordinary stock. 2. The second stage of (OD) action research plan, or changes, phase. Related to the studying process at this stage and planning and implementing behaviour change in client organizations, add the action. The category of reply shown by a response Loop will be taken and plan to change the past with the actual of well recognize the impact of changing customer systems will transport to educational activities 3. The third part of the (OD) research production, or outcome, stage. The platform includes real change in reaction. If any resulting from corrective action ratio taken the next second stage. Data collected from customer systems again can be set so that progress and modification may be needed in the learning activities. LEADERSHIP MOTIVATION THEORY FOR THE HILTON Hilton’s build a two dimensional factor build on employee behaviour of his work. They can be also added in there company policy, supervision, salary and working condition rather than motivators. As per his theory the absence of the factor creates a job satisfaction but their present doesn’t match there. In that case Hilton Group also find out a five motivate element were strong job satisfaction. 1. Achievement 2. Responsibility 3. Advancement 4. Preconisation 5. Work it self Critically evaluate theories relating to managing cultural diversity for Hilton group of hotels? Hilton International Group is a leading global hotel brand and the company, with an expanding portfolio of hotels, mainly Hilton Brand, Conrad and Vernon Hotels. The company operates 380 hotels worldwide and is represented in 66 countries. Its 80,000 strong workforce looks after an average of 8 million guests every year. The quality of the Hilton brand is such that customer service and operational excellence is higher than in most industries. Senior executives at Hilton believe that the training and ongoing development of its employees is critical in order for the business to stay ahead in a competitive global marketplace. Consequently, learning is a major part of the company’s strategy. Hilton International is totally decentralised; splitting into countries, cities and individual hotels. Theories for managing cultural diversity at Hilton group of hotels INTERNATIONAL HRM STRATEGY 1.Recruitment: The recruitment strategy, must determine the nature of the IMD programme and the type of international manager development. Three different approaches available to managing and staffing companies’ subsidiaries include an ethnocentric approach, which will tend to use expatriates in key positions abroad; a polycentric approach with the use of local nationals wherever possible, and a geocentric approach with a mixture of nationals, expatriates and third country nationals. In the ethnocentric approach, the cultural values and business practices of the home country are predominant. All the standards for evaluation and control are determined centrally from the headquarters in the form of orders and commands. The polycentric approach is in direct opposition. The subsidiaries in each country are developed locally under the supervision of local managers. It results in little communication between headquarters and subsidiary. The geocentric approach, organisations try to combine the best from headquarters and the subsidiaries to develop consistent worldwide practices. In regard to Hilton Hotel Group, it tries to involve more integration between centre and subsidiaries to ensure close co-operation between the different parts of the chain, and implement both universal and local standards for evaluation and control. The company that applies the global integrated business strategy manages and staffs employees on a global basis. For example, Hilton has for many years attempted to recruit and develop a group of international managers from diverse countries. These people constitute a mobile base of managers who are used in a variety of facilities as the need arises. 2. DEVELOPMENT AND PERFORMANCE EVALUATION Considering the international nature of the hotel industry it becomes clear that different development needs exist believes that there are two-tiered approaches to international development. At a tactical level, companies such as Hilton, have to ensure that managers are able to operate in different locations while developing sensitivity to the local environment. The second one is based on a strategic level, where managers are required to think globally and view the organisation in an international context. Hilton has introduced a large number of HRM strategies which focus on selecting, training and developing global managers who understand the worldwide ramifications of their business and can operate throughout the world. The loss of employees is among the biggest issues facing modern-day corporations. Hilton Hotel Group is one of the examples, where managers work with closely with employees to detail their career paths. Hilton continues to demonstrate that building a satisfied and valuable workforce is not a quick-fix procedure, but an integrated approach that permeates through every aspect of the organisation. Hilton tries to recognise the importance of employee approaches and heavily invests in it. 3. RECOGNITIONS AND REWARDS AT HILTON An organisation reward strategy is perhaps the area which, for employees, provides the greatest bridge between rhetoric and reality. It is not only an essential tool in terms of retention, motivation and recruitment – it is an opportunity to demonstrate the culture of the organisation in a way that has real impact on employees. Hilton International aims to make everyone feel valued within their working environment. Its objectives are to maintain high standards in human resources management and to create a business culture in which everyone can grow and develop their careers. To support this commitment, Hilton University has been launched worldwide, covering a range of skills for the hotel industry, from operational and technical to finance and general management. LABOUR MARKET: Labour supply and retention remain areas of managerial concern in the UK and international hospitality industry. High Turnover Issue: It is generally considered that turnover in the industry should be attributed to the essentially transient nature of part of the workforce, namely students, young mothers and young people as a whole, as well as to the general difficulty in retaining staff. The ageism issue is difficult to identify, and therefore difficult to eliminate in an employment context. Nowadays the industry employs mostly young people, and indeed for many of them provides the point of entry into the world of work. Older recruits often have considerable experience in the industry and may have a lower absentee rate. (Nord and Durand, 1978; Lucas, 1995) In Hilton, where employees are recognised as valued assets and receive the training needed to assume greater responsibility, and where their opinion is sought with regard to operational changes, turnover rates are lower. Impact of new technology: Technology which facilitates on-line hotels will have an impact in terms of staff reductions on the front-desk hotel staff, which used to perform those functions. This technology also calls for a different range of skills from employees. Training will therefore become a continuous need and the remaining jobs will require greater skills. Compare and contrast the style of leadership and appropriate motivation technique across different culture in Hilton group? The Hilton Group Plc also focuses the leadership styles depend on leader’s behaviour, result of philosophy, personality and experience of the leader. Here Kurt Lewin and some other philosopher declare some different types of leadership so we can be also think on this way to make a better organising management. Bureaucratic, Autocratic, Democratic or Laissez-Faire (Free Reign) Leadership. 1. Bureaucratic: – A leader who uses fear and threats to get jobs done. As a leader, an authoritarian leadership style which uses the leader with all this style also makes the same decision. 2. Autocratic: – Under the authoritarian leadership style, as a leader in federal decision-making powers is shown that leaders are rulers. 3. Democratic: – Democratic leadership style, decision as a favour done by group, as leader, after consulting group offers instruction. Democratic leader of the group members because they unilaterally decided by them in consultation with the Partnership are not born with as dictator. 4. Laissez-Faire (Free Reign):- A free rein leader does not lead, but the group showed itself as a complete leaf, a leader allows subordinates more and more freedom. They are given generous in deciding its policies and practices. Free rein leadership style autocratic style is considered better. Organizations around the world has been recognizing the cultural diversity within organization is not a contradict aspect, rather can assist an organizational pursue for glory. However it is not an easy task to manage employees with different cultural backgrounds. Nevertheless there are so many policy guidelines that can make a piece of work simplified. On a wide perspective, cultural diversity can be manage through communicating (creating awareness among all employees about diverse values of peers through communication), cultivating (facilitating acknowledgement, support and encouragement of any employee’ success by all other workers), and capitalizing (linking diversity to every business touch on and strategy such as succession planning, restructuring, employee motivation, performance management and review, and pay back systems) strategies Cross-cultural psychology at Hilton attempts to understand how individuals of different cultures interact with each other. Along these lines, cross-cultural leadership has developed as a way to understand leaders who work in the newly globalized market. Today’s international organizations require leaders who can adjust to different environments quickly and work with partners and employees. Implicit Leadership Theory: The Implicit Leadership Theory (ILT) asserts that people’s underlying assumptions, stereotypes, beliefs and schemas influence the extent to which they view someone as a good leader. Since people across cultures tend to hold different implicit beliefs, schemas and stereotypes, it would seem only natural that their underlying beliefs in what makes a good leader differ across cultures. Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions : One of the most prominent and influential studies to date regarding leadership in a globalized world is the Hofstede dimensions of culture. The study reveals similarities as well as differences across cultures and emphasizes the need to be open-minded to understand the differences in other cultures. Hofstede and Hofstede (2005) utilize five dimensions of culture to compare cultures to give leaders an understanding of how to adjust their leadership styles accordingly. These dimensions include Individualism/Collectivism, Feminine/Masculine, Power Distance, Uncertainty Avoidance, and Long Term/ Short Term orientation. Leadership Styles Across Cultures: Leadership is a universal phenomenon That is, wherever there are people, there are leaders. The question here is not whether leadership exists across cultures, but do various leadership styles (paternalistic leadership, transformational leadership, transactional leadership) translate across cultures Paternalistic Leadership Paternalistic leadership â€Å"combines strong discipline and authority with fatherly benevolence and moral integrity couched in a ‘personality’ atmosphere† Paternalistic leadership is composed of three main elements: authoritarianism, benevolence, and moral leadership. At its roots, paternalistic leadership refers to a hierarchical relationship in which the leader takes personal interest in the workers’ professional and personal lives in a manner resembling a parent, and expects loyalty and respect in return . A great deal of research has been conducted on the prevalence of this leadership style in non-Western business organizations, indicating the prevalence of paternalistic leadership in countries like China and Taiwan. However, considerably less research has been done on whether paternalistic leadership exists in Western cultures. Recently, there has been an increase in the amount of attention placed on paternalistic leadership in non-Western cultures. Based on recent cross-cultural studies, paternalistic leadership seems to be more apparent across cultures than previously believed. Further research is needed to explore how prevalent it is, and how individual characteristics may play a role in where paternalistic leadership is found. Transformational & Transactional Leadership In addition to paternalistic leadership, other well-known leadership styles include transformational leadership and transactional leadership. Transformational leadership is loosely defined as a charismatic leadership style that rallies subordinates around a common goal with enthusiasm and support. Transactional leadership is characterized by a give and take relationship using rewards as an incentive. These concepts were introduced by Bass (1985) and have been updated and studied throughout the years, claiming the transferability of these types of leadership styles across cultures. With the help of cross-cultural business surroundings comes a need for people to be aware of how culture influences the organization. The cause of event is the leadership challenge is very hard to achieve. The Leaders of new era should have the ability to managing people of different cultures; the leaders must have the ability to listen every one and should understand the actual meaning of diversified cultural co-workers. This is the main and the core challenge which a leader faces; when people perceive the world, communicate and view their leaders in different ways, the leader’s ears may be ringing with misunderstood messages. Behavioural Theories: Behavioural theories of leadership are based upon the belief that great leaders are made, not born. Rooted in behaviourism, this leadership theory focuses on the actions of leaders not on mental qualities or internal states. 3. Contingency or Situational Theories: Contingency theories of leadership focus on particular variables related to the environment that might determine which particular style of leadership is best suited for the situation. 4. Participative Theories: Participative leadership theories suggest that the ideal leadership style is one that takes the input of others into account. Theories of Motivation 1. Abraham Maslow’s â€Å"Need Hierarchy Theory†: One of the most widely mentioned theories of motivation is the hierarchy of needs theory put forth by psychologist Abraham Maslow. Maslow saw human needs in the form of a hierarchy, ascending from the lowest to the highest, and he concluded that when one set of needs is satisfied, this kind of need ceases to be a motivator. As per his theory this needs are : (i) Physiological needs : (ii) Security or Safety needs : (iii) Social needs : (iv) Esteem needs : (v) Need for self-actualization : Description: Motivation 2 â€Å"Theory X and Theory Y† of Douglas McGregor : McGregor states that people inside the organization can be managed in two ways. The first is basically negative, which falls under the category X and the other is basically positive, which falls under the category Y. 3 Mayo Theory of Motivation Elton Mayo (1880 – 1949) believed that workers are not just concerned with money but could be better motivated by having their social needs met whilst at work. 4 Herzberg Theory of Motivation Frederick Herzberg (1923-) had close links with Maslow and believed in a two-factor theory of motivation. He argued that there were certain factors that a business could introduce that would directly motivate employees to work harder (Motivators). However there were also factors that would de-motivate an employee if not present but would not in themselves actually motivate employees to work harder (Hygiene factors) Critical Analysis of leadership Theories Trait Theory: The Trait Approach came from the â€Å"Great Man† theory as a way of identifying the key characteristics of successful leaders. It was believed that through this approach critical leadership traits could be isolated and that people with such traits could then be recruited, selected, and installed into leadership positions. This approach was common in the military and is still used as a set of criteria to select candidates for commissions. The problem with the trait approach lies in the fact that almost as many traits as studies undertaken were identified. After several years of such research, it became apparent that no consistent traits could be identified. Although some traits were found in a considerable number of studies, the results were generally inconclusive. Some leaders might have possessed certain traits but the absence of them did not necessarily mean that the person was not a leader. 2 The Behavioural Theory: The results of the trait studies were in concluded. Traits, amongst other things, were hard to measure. How, for example, do we measure traits such as honesty, integrity, loyalty, or diligence, while in this theory of leadership its very clear that the behaviour of the leader is very important, its doesn’t matter how intelligent he is or how educated the leader is. its the game of behaviour and game of personality. This style of leadership, we can see mostly in south Asian countries or third world countries. And in my view this kind of leadership is based on idealism. 3 The Contingency Theory The behavioural theories can help the managers at Hilton Group for developing specific leadership behaviours they give them little guidance as to what constitutes effective leadership in different scenarios. Indeed, I feel that no one leadership style is right for every manager under all circumstances. Instead, contingency-situational theories were developed to indicate that the style to be used is contingent upon such factors as the situation, the people, the task, the organization, and other environmental variables. 4 Participative Theories Participative theory may helps more to the managers rather than other above theories. The positive thing about participative style of leadership is distribute the power among the team members. That’s means the leader transfer and share the power among all the team members. This will help to make better decisions, because every team member will participate in the decision making process. In this case every team member has the importance and that thing motivate and enhance their confidence level. On the other hand if the leader transfer the power to that member who I not capable of doing assigned work than that thing can impact negatively. Maslow’s theory is not easy to test because of the nature of the subject involved, the difficulty with defining the plan or intention and only cover partly, for example between love and esteem, or physical and safety needs. Deprivation: The person who is not available in all of the basic needs containing as part of the whole being consi dered physiological, safety, love, and esteem would likely feel a powerful desire for food above all else. In the Maslow as a witness explain the example of a persisting for a long time or constantly recurring hungry person for whom no other interests exist beyond food: â€Å"he dreams food, he remembers food, he thinks about food, he emotes only about food, he conscious of only food and he wants only food†. Maslow suggested that people who experienced extreme emotional and/or physical the damaging lack of material benefits considered to be basic necessities in a society early in life may be permanently destroyed in terms of the social, esteem, and fulfilment of one’s talents and potentialities needs. Individuals develop coping mechanisms in the face of ongoing stressors: in the context of chronic deprivation of basic needs, the person may break the connection from the higher needs, since they may seem causes despair out of reach. Adults who were process of moving up the hierarchy of needs as the lower needs become satisfied criticized theories that rest on especially significant details of human behaviour under remarkable conditions, Care taken to avoid danger or mistakes against unknown situation from human behaviour in emergencies to human behaviour in more typical situations. Maslow stated a fact or belief confidently and forcefully that those who attempt to measure the goals of humankind based on not involving anyone â€Å"behaviour during extreme physiological deprivation is used to emphasize being blind to many things .it is important to observe human behaviour under more normal circumstances in order to develop a generally applicable theory that is not distorted by reaching a high environments. Maslow’s theory of the hierarchy of human needs make an effort to achieve an account for the experience of the persisting for a long time or constantly recurring hungry and the chronically satisfied within the same model, but the model’s structure does not allow enough flexibility to account for the extremes of satisfaction and the damaging lack of material benefits considered to be basic necessities in a society as well as the normal experiences of the general population. â€Å"Theory X and Theory Y† of Douglas McGregor This lasting legacy of McGregor’s The Human Side of Enterprise and his Theory X and Y is that it shows how far management thinking has come. Objecting to the dominance of Theory X in the workplace of the time, McGregor noted that ‘if there is a single assumption that pervades conventional organization theory, it is that authority is the central, indispensable means of managerial control.’ McGregor then put forward an available as another possibility or choice the art of representing three-dimensional objects on a two-dimensional surface so as to give the right impression of their height, width, depth, and position in relation to each other. Theory Y was based on the opposite set of assumptions, namely that people need not only to work but want to work. Under Theory Y, the worker finds that mental and physical effort at work are as natural as it is not working or occupied; that belonging to control and threats are not the single means of control in a company; that the average human learns not only to accept but to attempt to find responsibility; and that most of us have a fully occupying the available area to display a high degree of forming new ideas, and original in sorting out problems. It is true that neither of McGregor’s two polar opposites are achievable in any organization. Even the most swollen and distended or congested corporate giant has human spirit remain hidden within it, while the most off-beam creative firms require an organization a set of ideas. McGregor recognized this fact and was busy by the terms of a will a hybrid of organizational human try hard to achieve something, theory Z, when he died. Mayo Theory of Motivation Mayo theory of motivation has described that treating with people as human is important. The manager Should give them self respect and importance, this is an effective tool for the people who work in an organization. But the negative aspect of this theory is that mayo has forgotten about the basic needs and one of them is money. Only the self respect is not enough other things also matters. In my opinion the mayo theory of motivation is competitively less effective that other theories of motivation. Herzberg Theory of Motivation Herzberg has discussed two factor here in my view Hygiene factors avoid job dissatisfaction, for example the company polices really matters. Are they helpful to the workers, how the administration is working, what leadership style they have? If both company policy and administration is worker friendly than it really helpful to the workers and motivates them, there few other factors which have the importance is supervision, interpersonal relationship, working conditions, salary, status and security. these are the factors if they are shown preferably in the company policies that can really motivate the employees. While in Motivation Factor – work condition related to the satisfaction of the need for psychological growth, job enrichment and leads to superior performance & effort Motivation-Hygiene Combinations (Motivation = M, Hygiene = H) Benefits of Cultural Diversity For producing desired results multi-cultural managed companies have cost effective competitive advantage. It helps in boosting minority friendly reputation among progressive employees. Diverse cultural corporations help to get the best customers which have a variety of people. Diverse group of employees are seems to be more creative and efficient in problem solving as compared to similar group. Ability to manage cultural diversity increases adaptability and flexibility of an organization to environmental changes. Globalization is the increased interdependence (economic, social, technical, and political) between nations. People are becoming more interconnected. At Hilton there is more international trade, cultural exchange, and use of worldwide telecommunication systems. In the last 10 years, our schools, organizations, and communities have become far more global than in the past. Increased globalization has created many challenges, including the need to design effective multinational organizations, to identify and select appropriate leaders for these entities, and to manage organizations with culturally diverse employees. Motivation strategy at Hilton: An organisation’s rewards strategy is perhaps the area which, for employees, provides the greatest bridge between rhetoric and reality. It is not only an essential tool in terms of retention, motivation and recruitment – it is an opportunity to demonstrate the culture of the organisation in a way that has real impact on employees. At Hilton, the acquisition of leisure group Stakis plc in March 1999 promoted a review and subsequent update of the company’s rewards program – Esprit Club. Through their â€Å"Espirit† programme, Hilton International aims to make everyone feel valued within their working environment. Its objectives are to maintain high standards in human resources management and to create a business culture in which everyone can grow and develop their careers. To support this commitment, Hilton University has been launched worldwide, covering a range of skills for the hotel industry, from operational and technical to finance and general management CONCLUSION:- The hospitality industry, being so people-centred and customer-driven, needs inspirational leadership in all its sectors. In that case The Hilton Group Plc’s Organisation culture is analytical –learning search problem and explains process adds in to the customer service systems. This data in the form of a printed report has not come quickly, but quick response into the open joint session, and client and change agent to identify specific problems and ranking co-operation, ways to discover their real reasons in preparation, and plans to compete with them in developing realistic and practical. As a Hospitality method of data assembly, Customer satisfaction, Cleanness, accuracy, measuring results and management however, as strictly followed as a rule so it could be make lots of customer ratio. Hilton’s strategy on globalisation strongly affects the approach it takes to international human resource management. To ensure the development of managers with international experience, Hilton and other global hotel chains need to establish HRM systems as a core component of general organisation strategy and adopt a formalised approach to IMD. Whichever approach is adopted, it seems essential to plan the strategy and focus on a holistic, long-term approach rather than the individual, short-term approaches. A more centralised approach can optimise Hilton’s management as a competitive resource. The double challenges thinking puff leadership development and improve effective leadership developing practices In the Hilton Group Plc It would be greater than best of previous. At that time we find our self carefully positive field for the future. Some of the positive trends that are the make a future both challenging and interesting for the Hilton’s employee. Hilton’s strategy on globalisation strongly affects the approach it takes to international human resource management. To ensure the development of managers with international experience, Hilton and other global hotel chains need to establish HRM systems as a core component of general organisation strategy and adopt a formalised approach to IMD. Whichever approach is adopted, it seems essential to plan the strategy and focus on a holistic, long-term approach rather than the individual, short-term approaches. A more centralised approach can optimise Hilton’s management as a competitive resource. References: 1. www.hospitalityleadership.com 2. www.ukessays.co.uk 3. www.carererandhotelkeeper.com 4. http://www.caterersearch.com 5. http://www3.hilton.com 6. http://www.papercamp.com/group/harvard-hilto 7. Master of Science in Hotel Administration -William F. Harrah College of Hotel Administration 8. Leadership research in hospitality: a critical review- Steven Boyne 9. Organizational Behaviour: Foundations, Theories, and Analyses: By John B. Miner 10. Armstrong M., 1996, Personnel Management Practice, Kogan Page; 11. Article, 2001, Human resources development, employment and globalisation in the hotel, catering and tourism sector, International Labour Organisation, April 2, www-ilrror.cornell.edu/public/english/dialogue/sector/techmeet/tmhct01/tmhctr2.htm

Don’t Worry, Be Happy Essay

â€Å"It will soon pass whatever it is. Don’t worry, be happy. † These are the epic words of Bobby McFerrin from the song: Don’t worry, be happy. In today’s life style our society thrives off of each other’s negativity. We are in a constant spiral of humanity due to the fact we don’t look to the better side of reality but to the ugly face of our pessimistic lives. Our lifestyles revolve the pain and loss we encounter, we need to take up the or at least grasp the concepts that lie in the melodies of Bobby McFerrin’s hit single. The meaning, history and relevance to today’s society will be analyzed. Don’t worry, be happy is a song released by Bobby McFerrin in conjunction with the film Cocktail in 1988. The song is an international feel good anthem for listeners all around. It focuses on the emphasis of looking past your troubles and remaining positive. Whether it be materialistic or emotional, one cannot let themselves be brought down because as a society we are all in a way or another connected and experience the toppling domino effect causing your peers also to come crashing down. According to a study conducted by the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Texas Medical Branch, 96 pairs of college roommates during 2 assessment sessions. The roommates of depressed target students became more depressed themselves over the course of the study. In relation to the song when you worry your face will frown and that will bring everybody down. Also McFerrin even offers to help the listener seek happiness, symbolizing that there is always some hope and the listener need only to reach out and seek it to achieve it. In general the song is telling the listener to promote the positive rather than the negative in one’s life, a concept that the people of today lack.

Different facets of the Macro Economy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Different facets of the Macro Economy - Essay Example There was a development of model of trader risk that insinuated that decisions on investments are done with reference to market noise, and these decisions are not rational and hence unpredictable from the simple fact that they are affected by the sentiments of an investor. This makes the idiot traders a threat in markets of finance. Secondly, noise existence provides opportunists with information that enables them to exploit and take advantage of the situation in the market. These opportunists may engage in strategies of stealth trading where these investors extend their trade with time. Lastly, the irrationality by the noisy traders may lead to movement of assets’ prices from their basic values hence making the market to destabilize. Contrary to that, investors who are rational would act in a manner opposing a noisy trader hence stabilizes the market equilibrium. There is a prediction that institutional investors fail in encountering activities that are irrational by the nois y traders. The examination of the essential effects of the noisy traders on ADR market is as explained. ADR return falls or increases if the investors are not rationally pessimistic or optimistic. In the period of low noise, ADRs that are owned by high institutions exhibit autocorrelation that is same to ADRs being owned by low institutions. Nevertheless, in periods of high noise, ADRs that are owned by high institutions exhibit autocorrelation that is higher compared to the ones owned by low institutions. This creates an implication that there must have been an engagement in stealth trading by investors for exploitation of an irrational market. Via a regression of Granger causality, there is evidence of ADR portfolio returns with high institutions ownership which confirms that these traders make a reflection of the market information which is in the long run converted to securities. Finally, investors of an institution aid in the reduction of ADR returns of Europe. Though, for othe r continents ADRs, the stabilizing magnitude of positions of arbitrage that is taken by investors of an institution is not significant (De Long et al. 1990) Question two Consider a model with both noisy traders and rational arbitragers. Suppose there are no limits of arbitrage. Then arise in investment sentiments among the noisy traders: a) Shifts the asset demand curve of the noisy traders N b) May lead to increased short sales Y c) Has no effect on the equilibrium asset price N d) Affects the distribution of assets holding between the two groups of investors Y e) Affect the total gross supply of the assets in the market Y Discussion In case of existence of the noisy trader and an arbitrager in a market, given that there are no limits of arbitrage and a situation of arising of sentiments, a) there would not be shifts in the demand curve of the noisy traders. The explanation for this is straightforward because given an irrational trader who takes risk which give rise to investment s entiment; the prices of assets are mainly affected. In economics, the price of commodities affects demand in that the increase or decrease in prices leads to a movement of the curve and not a shift. Therefore, the statement of demand shifting is wrong as the main factor influencing demand of asset in this case is the price. b) The action may lead to increased short sales in that, in any case the noisy trader tries to sell the assets at prices that are lower than the market’

Financial Planning Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Financial Planning - Term Paper Example Under the traditional forecasting the fixed assets are increased as a percentage of sales. This cannot be entirely justified. It is possible that the fixed assets owned by the firm are sufficient in supporting the projected sales level i.e. if the company may have an excess capacity. In such cases the amount of fixed assets will not vary with the sales level rather it remains unchanged. The other expenses like cost of material, any other direct expense like wages etc are likely to increase as a proportion of sales only. Similarly, spontaneous liabilities like accrued expenses and accounts payable are a form of current liabilities that can be reasonably expected to vary as per the sales level. Therefore, for these items the forecast made on the basis of sales appears to be justified. The other types of liabilities like long term debt, notes payable, paid-in capital and common stock cannot be assumed to fluctuate with the sales level. The amount of retained earnings can be assumed to b e based on the net profit margin minus any planned dividend. Hence it can be said that all the items cannot be anticipated to vary with the level of sales. Even though some items of the financial statements like accounts payable can be reasonable assumed to vary with sales others like fixed assets cannot be anticipated to vary with sales as there is a possibility of a firm having unused capacity which can take care of the forecasted sales rise (Keown, p.108). 2) a. In case of rapidly rising sales the firm’s cash position may or may not increase. In case of most of the rise being in the form of cash sales then the cash position will increase, however, if the same is in the form of credit sales then the cash position may not immediately increase. b. A delay in payable payment will increase the cash position of the business. c. A more liberal credit policy will decrease the cash position as this would mean ‘extended credit period’ thereby blocking the fund in sales for long periods of time. d. Holding of large inventory is likely to reduce the cash position as the company may not be able to use entire amount of inventory in its production activities. Due to this the conversion of inventory into sales will take time with an immediate impact of reduced cash position. However an exception to this will be if the company is able to procure inventory on credit. e. A rise in the depreciation on fixed assets will not have any impact on the cash position. This is because depreciation does not involve any actual cash outflow for the business. f. Retention of higher percent of earnings would mean less cash dividend outflow. This is likely to increase the cash position of the business. 3) The recent financial crisis originated in USA and gradually spread across the worldwide financial markets. This squeezed the ‘credit’ as the financial institutions across the globe became wary of lending. The crisis had its roots in the ‘housing bubble ’ when the housing prices were booming in the domestic market in US. Induced by the increased demand for housing loans a number of derivative products like securitization, credit default swaps were issued. Buoyed by the low rate of interest and poor credit appraisal even the sub-prime borrowers were given loans. All was fine but once the rate of interest started rising these borrowers started defaulting. The market participants panicked with the fall of the financial giants

McDonalds Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

McDonalds - Essay Example People started being more dynamic, always on the road, changing customer taste and complex menus affected McDonalds’ ability to consistently deliver quality, service and value. Customers had to wait longer for special orders and they could notice changes in the standard originally set by McDonald. In response to these challenges, McDonald designed and implemented its new just-in-time kitchen system named ‘Made-for-You’. This kitchen is technically an overhaul of its previous kitchen designed to improve food quality, allows more menu items to be easily introduced and provide superior customer service. ‘Made-for-you’ mean whatever the customers have ordered is made just for them after they have ordered it. Nothing is prepared before the customer arrives. However, some components are prepared in advance. Its new system is based on five major criteria to succeed. First is service, which would take ninety seconds or less from ordering to delivery. Quality, which is second, is achieved by meeting high customer standards and food safety requirements. Third is food preparation, which should be easier to do right than wrong. Fourth are people. There should be increased job satisfaction, and finally profitability by reducing cost yet increasing customer satisfaction. New technology and extensive market research helped McDonalds developed a kitchen system that encompasses all of these operational and customer requirements. The company spent number of years exploring cooking technology, and holding technology where a component should be prepared in advance and kept in warming environment where it holds its temperature and moisture. McDonald’s ‘made-for-you’ kitchen system enables faster service to the customer. For example, when a customer places an order for a hamburger, it will show up on a screen and that would signal the crew to take a ban, put it through a special toaster up to 150 degree in eleven seconds. At that point, in time, the product is put on a rap various items added and finally meat is added from a special meat holding cabinet, and the product is rapped and presented to the customer. McDonald’s heated cabinet, called universal cabinet, was specifically designed for the made-for-you system. It enables them to handle all meat products for all of its sandwiches at temperatures that will be very much as if they have just come off the grills. In its new system, it also had a rapid speed toaster, which toast bans in only eleven seconds compared to twenty four seconds in the previous system. When an order is made, it is relayed to the kitchen and appears on the kitchen video monitor that is visible to the whole crew. Prior to the order, its computer system monitors customers’ traffic all the time in attempt to determine the flow orders. Computer can then detect times when business would increase and the types of food items ordered during these times. The computer then genera tes orders for the best selling items creating a buffer of items that are ordered in quick times this helps employees get a head during a rush. The computer also monitors employees output. Personal Opinion Changes in customers tastes and behaviors did bring challenges that initiated research carried out by McDonalds. These challenges might have brought negative impact to the business for sometime but in the end, it was an opportunity to conquer the world with new technologies. Several years of service gave it an edge over its competitors and through that it was

Cultural and Communication Self-Assessment Paper Essay

Cultural and Communication Self-Assessment Paper - Essay Example In this case, it is justified to argue that the culture of Indonesia is an amalgamation of varying cultures, ranging from Hinduism, to Islam. On another point of view, Purdey (pp.6) indicates that the origin of the Indonesians is from China. The people of Indonesia migrated from China; thus, the origin of Indonesia is attributed to China. Others have been indicated to have migrated from the Indies and eastern part of Asia. The number of immigrants into the country, from the Chinese origin as a result of population increase indicated an escalating trend. The studies carried out by Suryadinata (pp.125) and Sneddon (pp.37) indicate that in the course of imperialism, the number of persons from China to the country increased. In fast statistics from the census carried out in the year 2010 portray that the number of Chinese citizens from the country are above eight million. The population of the country that is purely Indonesian stands at 3.7 million. This is an elucidation of the fact that the country is made up many Chinese citizens (Tong, pp.147). Belief, in simple terms, can be described as the acceptance of something or a practice as factual (Blackburn, pp.39). Beliefs have in one way or another been indicated to hold a very important place in the minds of individuals. Through these beliefs, human beings have been made to claim a position in the societies they live in, through their conceptions. With mental conception and conviction on the values and beliefs of the truth, the population is bound to develop a routine that governs their way of life. In Indonesia, serving a meal to numerous guests is a symbol of hospitality and status in the family (Brouwer, Hartog & Staveren, pp.27).This is evident most specifically during the month of Ramadan when relations and friends converge for feasts. This symbolizes compassion and virtues of sharing in the society. The relations are

Response to Client Request Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Response to Client Request - Essay Example Since, in this case the client holds the position of the lessor and the customer that has reached the client would fill the place of the lessee in this agreement. Therefore, from the client’s perspective, the leases from the standpoint for lessor hold significant value. Sales-type leases are the leases that give rise to a profit or loss to the lessor with the lease agreement as it would have done had the leased property been sold. This is because the leased property is given to the lessee at the fair value of the property which may be higher or less than the actual cost of the property. Direct financing leases are a very important type of leases as they are widely used in the lease agreements. There are certain criteria that must be met in order for a lease agreement to quality for direct financing lease. ... following criteria; the lease agreement includes three parties that are lessor, a long term creditor and a lessee, the financing provided by the long term creditor is nonrecourse as to the general credit of the lessor, the lessor’s net investment in the lease declines during the early years and rises in the later years. Any other types of leases, other than those described above, are classified as operating leases. In case of this client, the following points should also be taken into consideration. In case of direct financing lease or sales-type lease, it is also important for the lessor to ensure that the collectability of the minimum lease payments is reasonably predictable. A lessor shall not classify a lease as a direct financing lease or a sales-type lease merely on the basis of an estimate regarding the collectability of the minimum lease payments based on the prior experience with the lessee or prior experience with similar groups of receivables. The lessor should also make sure that no important uncertainties surround the amount of reimbursements to be made by the lessor to the lessee in relation to the performance of the leased property. The uncertainties might arise due to extensive guarantee provided by the lessor regarding the performance of the leased property. In this case, lessee might retrieve the amount of loss, if any, incurred by the lessee due to the lack of performance of the leased property as opposed to what was promised by the lessor. These factors shall apply in the case of the client as the client must ensure that the customer that has reached the client would be able to pay the minimum lease payments without any default in the payments. This can be ensured by conducting a market survey regarding the integrity of the customer. If the

Role of Leader in Managing Conflict Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Role of Leader in Managing Conflict - Essay Example Prior to the discussion of conflict management, it is vital to comprehend the meaning of conflict. Kleynhans (2009) described a conflict as an active disagreement between people with different opinions, values or interests. The Foundation Coalition (n.d) defined conflict as the bone of contention among individuals or groups due to differing goals, needs and ideas. Marshall (2006) defined the sources of conflict to be diverse in nature; †¢ Differences in the values and customs of the individuals †¢ Presence of limited number of resources, thus provoking individuals to compete †¢ Lack of information or barriers in communication †¢ Presence of hostility in relations In terms of the initiation of conflicts, the health care industry is no different. Health care sector faces numerous instances of conflicts on a daily basis; some of the instances might be witnessed between doctors and nurses whereas others amongst the nurses. Pierre, Hofinger and Buerschaper (2008) stated that health care professionals are faced with intense moments of unexpected scenarios, rare illnesses and reactions that require dynamic and effective decision making. Such capabilities are even greatly required in the Critical Care Unit (CCU) where patients are faced with life threatening situations. Therefore, this study seeks to critically discuss the role of a leader in managing conflict in a CCU, using real life examples and case studies from the health care sector. An example is drawn from critical care unit in Riyadh Military Hospital to identify the real life instances of conflicts in a health care organization. This paper seeks to critically analyze the different types of conflict management strategies and techniques with the aid of the available literature and theories, as well as the approaches that can be adopted to avoid conflicts in the health care sector. 2. Nature of Conflicts in a Health Care Organization Certain degree of clashes of ideas about tasks and projects are often witnessed in a health care organization. Hovatter (n.d) stated that conflicts are mainly initiated when needs are not met effectively. He further stated that conflicts involve the inhibition of achievement of tasks of an individual or group by the actions or ideas of an individual or a group. In the light of this notion, it can be stated that there are mainly two types of conflicts that are found in an organization; group and individual conflict. Group conflict pertains to collective disagreement over something by a group of people in the organization. On the other hand, individual conflict is more personal and it mainly involves individuals. In order to solve the conflict s, the leaders need to assume the responsibility of ensuring an amiable and supportive environment in the organization. The health care sector has witnessed great changes with the passage of the years. Fagin and Garelick (2004) stated that doctors have been considered as the main sources of knowledge and authority over the possession of medical information. Doctors have been known to be educated while nurses have been trained to follow the instructions of the doctors in the most effective manner. However, Fagin and Garelick (2004) also stated that the gap in the acquisition of knowledge has been reduced by the improvement of standard of training of nurses, which became effective in 2000 by the Department of Health’s Project. Vivar (2006) also agreed that the broadening of the scope of training and education of the nurses has resulted in greater conflicts between doctors and nurses.

Introduction to project management (Project Proposal) Essay

Introduction to project management (Project Proposal) - Essay Example I choose to be a facilitator to emphasize that the wellspring of â€Å"knowledge and experiences† and the skills utilized does not come from me but from the targeted group themselves. This will boost their confidence in what they do, make them perform better and provide service worth what the client is paying for. It is our Christian vow to help the elderly, widows, and those that are suffering financially (low income earners). It is also our social responsibility as members of the community to empower them. We have to make them see that they are untapped resources that can be utilized under an income generating activity that is sustainable, cost effective, easy to manage. Under this activity the experiences and knowledge of the elderly will be a fine resource for creative writing. They will be given the opportunity to tell their stories, their dreams and legacies. This will fill their days with purpose and joy of having to remember and reminisce. The manpower to encode and send them to freelance writing sites will be a task for the low income earners. This entire scheme will be under a group â€Å"job† provider that will make representations with the freelance writing sites and will also receive payment. For us to work and give of our time and resources, we have to be committed to the cause. For only with commitment comes passion to work hard and finish the project till the very end. So, as a Christian and as a Member of the community, I call upon you to contribute your God-given talents into this activity that will help people in

Reading Responses Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Reading Responses - Assignment Example Further, her contentions that Clinton failed to gauge and evaluate the audience by not fitting the social norms were not appropriately substantiated. The audience would most predominantly be composed of both the male and female gender and the effectiveness of the speaker depends not solely on fitting the social norm, but in addressing the purpose of the speech that caters to the needs of the audience. The arguments that finally shift the blame to the American public for Clinton’s supposed failure as a rhetor was equally ludicrous. An effective rhetorical analysis should have used pathetic, logical and ethical appeals that are fair, objective and credible. Does it mean that because Clinton was manifesting her experience as a lawyer, expert, and advocate, she is already exhibiting a masculine speaking style? Do these roles and responsibilities only fit the male gender and render them befitting for

ICT and society portfolio section Essay Example for Free

ICT and society portfolio section Essay Microsoft word Microsoft Word is a word processor program from Microsoft. It was originally written by Richard Brodie for IBM PC computers running DOS in 1983. Later versions were created for the Apple Macintosh (1984), SCO UNIN, and Microsoft Windows (1989). It became part of the Microsoft Office. Microsoft word is a software package which can be used for school work, course work, home work or personal work such as making posters or fliers. So it is extremely useful, especially if you have untidy handwriting because Microsoft word can improve your presentation not only by improving your writing but also can improve presentation by adding pictures, this can be done using a feature called clipart which allows me too insert pictures to my work. Another good point about this is that it has a feature called spell check, which is handy if you are bad at spelling because if you spelt a word wrong then it will either automatically correct it or show you a list of words to help you. The only bad point about spell check is that it doesnt recognise every word and that sometimes it uses the American spelling of words. Other god points include the fact that if you are doing something such as an essay or coursework which requires a lot of writing because you can easily change your words if you make a mistake whereas if you were writing it out by hand then you would have to rewrite everything from the beginning. Microsoft Excel Excel 2003 enables you to turn data into information with powerful tools to analyze, communicate, and share results. Excel 2003 can help you work better in teams, and help protect and control access to your work. In addition, you can work with industry-standard Extensible Mark-up Language (NML) data to make it easier to connect to business processes. Just like Microsoft word, excel is a software package which can be used for school work, course work, home work or personal work. Mostly excel is used in business in order to keep track of financial status and to record data required to run a business. The good points about Microsoft excel is that you can use features such as auto sum which allows you to quickly and easily count up numbers, another feature is the graph function which allows you to create graphs easily, the graphs make the figures easier to understand and improves presentation. Microsoft access Microsoft Access is a relational database management system from Microsoft, packaged with Microsoft Office Professional. Microsoft Access can use data stored in Access/Jet, Microsoft SQL Server, Oracle, or any ODBC-compliant data container. Skilled software developers and data architects use it to develop powerful, complen application software. Relatively unskilled programmers and non-programmer power users can use it to build simple applications without having to deal with features they dont understand. Microsoft Access was also the name of a communications program from Microsoft, meant to compete with ProComm and other programs. This Microsoft Access proved a failure and was dropped. Years later Microsoft reused the name for its database software. Microsoft access is normally used in areas such as hospitals in order to keep a record of all the patients. Another area where databases are used is in buissness in order to keep track of financial staus and contacts. Microsoft PowerPoint Microsoft publisher Microsoft Publisher is a desktop publishing application from Microsoft. This program helps you easily create, customize, and publish materials such as newsletters, brochures, flyers, catalogs, and Web sites. It is very neat and tidy and improves presentation. People who work in the advertising industry might find publisher very useful because it is very quick and easy to use.

The Processes Of Conceptualisation And Operationalisation Social Work Essay

The Processes Of Conceptualisation And Operationalisation Social Work Essay This paper will begin by examining what is meant by conceptualisation. Using examples, it will demonstrate how broad theories are narrowed down to mid-range theories showing how this refinement can aid a practical and achievable study, within a realistic timeframe. This essay will then introduce the process of operationalisation and explain how variables and indicators are used as aids in specifying exactly what is being observed. The subject of child abuse will be used throughout the paper where different appropriate examples will be used to clarify meaning. Two reports in particular, The Murphy Report (2009) and The Ryan Report (2009) both child abuse studies will be used. This essay will further clarify the conceptualisation and operationalisation processes by outlining the three main steps involved. These steps will be explained and examples of their use in research studies will be demonstrated. In all research studies great emphasis is placed on the accuracy of information presented. As such, reliability and validity will be briefly discussed at the concluding section on indicators. This paper will then present a summary of the main points of this essay. To conclude, this paper will emphasise the importance of employing the processes of conceptualisation and operationalisation to a research study. Social researchers are concerned with examining the relationship between human interactions of people and the society in which they live in. It is not possible however, to do a broad study on human interactions and society in one research project. Researchers therefore, will concentrate on a specific aspect of some social issue. This process begins with a definition of the chosen topic, for example assuming the topic was based on poverty. There are different elements that need to be considered. Poverty could include income poverty, living conditions, diet or any other element that prohibits people from fully partaking in society (Lister, 2004). Before a study begins, the researcher should ideally determine what aspect of poverty is to be examined. It may be for example, the impact of a reduction in child benefit to families already living below meridian income level. Here a researcher may concentrate his or her study on how even lower income further prohibits families from fully participating in society. In this case the researcher may use the theory of social exclusion. However, social exclusion is a very broad concept and researchers will generally look at other, mid range theories or form their own, for example, reducing benefits to lower income families can have effects on childrens health. Having determined which aspect of poverty to study, the researcher will then decide what it is, and what it is not, they are trying to find out. This process is part of what is termed conceptualisation (Geraghty, 2008). Conceptualisation is the process of narrowing down, confining, defining and explaining, what it is, that is being examined. It is concerned with what is meant by a term (Geraghty, 2008). In undertaking research studies, the researcher has to be clear about what aspect of a social phenomenon is being studied. Just as importantly, the completed study must also demonstrate to the readers, that the study has dealt with and answered the specific starting research question. To demonstrate what has been explained thus far, this essay will take an appropriate example to convey more clearly how conceptualisation works. In Ireland over the last two decades there has been extensive media focus and attention on Child Abuse. Considering child abuse as a research study, it is important to understand the scale and scope of the topic. One of the first things to be considered is the definition of child abuse. As the example is taken from an Irish context, it is appropriate to quote The Commission to Inquire into Child Abuse Act, 2000 which states child abuse as: The wilful, reckless or negligent infliction of physical injury on, or failure to prevent such injury to, the child. The use of the child by a person for sexual arousal or sexual gratification of that person or another person. Failure to care for the child, which results in serious impairment of the physical or mental health or development of the child or serious adverse effects on his or her behaviour or welfare. Any other act or omission towards the child which results in serious impairment of the physical or mental health or development of the child or serious adverse effects on his or her behaviour or welfare. (The Commission to Inquire Into Child Abuse Act, 2000 ). From this definition it can be deducted, there are four main types of abuse that constitute the concept of Child Abuse in Ireland. These are physical abuse, neglect, sexual abuse and emotional abuse. In undertaking research on Child Abuse, the researcher may confine the study to one aspect, such as neglect. This may be further refined by looking at a hypothesis or theory of neglect as a topic such as, the impact of parental drug dependency on Irish children within the family. By narrowing down and focussing on specific research questions related to the topic it is easier to produce a relevant, meaningful and practical research study. Conversely, if a researcher were to ignore this approach and deal with the topic of Child Abuse only as a topic, there are many aspects and questions that would have to be considered. These could include all the different types of abuse at an international level over huge timeframes. To further examine and explain the process of conceptualisation this es say will give another example from an actual Irish research on Child Sexual Abuse. The Murphy report (2009) was commissioned to examine the allegations and suspicions of child sexual abuse against clerics in the Archdiocese of Dublin over the period 1975 to 2004. The author takes this report as a further example of conceptualisation as it specifically details exactly what it was set up to find out. It examines allegations of child abuse against clerics; here it is not concerned with lay people or other children. The study was confined to the Archdiocese of Dublin, not Ireland as a whole. Finally, the report was focussed only on the period spanning 1975 through to 2005. This conceptualisation made it very clear what exactly the research was to encapsulate. The previous paragraphs discussed specification of meaning of terms whilst this example demonstrates evidence of clarification of concepts. The Operationalisation process is also concerned with specification but on a different more detailed scale. Operationalisation is a process where certain variables are employed as aids in specifying what exactly is being observed and just as importantly, specifying and demonstrating, how exactly observation will be carried out. It is important to understand what is meant by the term variable. In defining the term Giddens explains it as: A dimension along which an object, individual or group may be categorised, such as income or height, allowing specific comparisons with others or over time (Giddens, 2001,p.701). Other concepts such as class or satisfaction can not be observed (Bell, 2005). Ways of measurement must therefore be determined. Rose and Sullivan (1996) are cited by Bell (2005:p.139) to show how the concept of class might be measurable. They write that: If we wish to understand something about class (a concept and therefore†¦not observable), what can we observe in the world which manifests class? That is, what indicators can be used for class so that we can obtain data about class? This is the essence of the measurement problem and when we link an unobservable concept with an observable indicator we are producing operationalisations. (Rose and Sullivan 1996:12-13). The authors do not expand on this quote but indicators of class for example may be based on salary, housing or education. These are elements of the concept of class and are measurable. In the previous example of The Murphy Report the term Child Abuse was seen to be defined under four main headings. These could also be taken as the variables, a specification of what aspects of child abuse will be researched. Continuing with the operationalisation process, having identified variables the researcher will then need to devise indicators to measure the concept (Bryman,2004). Thus far this paper has attempted to portray an understanding of conceptualisation and operationalisation. In doing so, it was also necessary to include references to variables and indicators. The next section of this paper necessitates further explanations of these terms. The three main steps in these processes are defining concepts, identifying variables and developing measurement indicators (Geraghty, 2008). This paper will outline each of these and provide appropriate examples that are continuing on the subject of child abuse. In examining what is meant by conceptualisation this paper explained the complexity of undertaking a broad research and detailed ways in which a subject or topic could be narrowed down and refined. Geraghty (2008) explains it as using a theory to identify concepts at the core of a research study. An example of poverty was given at the start of this paper demonstrating different elements of the topic that could merit a research study on their own, for example income poverty. Defining concepts also involves researching current and previous definitions on the subject. Previously in this paper a definition of child abuse was taken from The Commission to Inquire into Child Abuse Act, 2000. A definition from an American study over twenty years earlier gives a legal definition as: The physical or mental injury, sexual abuse, negligent treatment, or maltreatment of a child under the age of 18 by a person who is responsible for the childs welfare under circumstances which indicate the childs health or welfare is harmed or threatened thereby.'( Bradbard and Watkins, 1982). Although these definitions are similar to a degree there are some differences that may be important in specifying elements of a concept. The Irish definition for example does not specify an age level whereas the American definition specifies under the age of eighteen. The Irish example does not specify that the abuse is by a person who is responsible for the childs health or welfare. There are many other definitions of abuse that may also include exploitation or other elements as a variable. What is seen as abuse in one culture may be accepted as normal practice in another, such as child marriages. Researching such definitions helps to give a clearer aspect of a concept and may be useful in identifying other relevant elements for consideration. Having looked at defining a concept the next step is to identify variables. Identifying variables is an important part of the conceptualisation and operationalisation process. It involves examining different dimensions of a topic that need to be considered to capture exactly what is being observed (Geraghty, 2008). As with defining concepts it is important to research previous studies to capture what variables other researchers used and how they applied them (Geraghty, 2008). Previously this paper referred to the Murphy Report (2009), which was primarily concerned with child sexual abuse and clerical involvement. In this case only the sexual element of abuse was researched. Taking sexual abuse as the subject necessitates determining variables of Child Sexual Abuse. These may include social status, incest and institutional settings. Another report, the Ryan Report (2009) studied Child Abuse in Irish Industrial schools and childrens institutions spanning several decades up to 1974. This report, in dealing with child abuse broke abuse into four variables; physical abuse, neglect, sexual abuse and emotional abuse. There has been huge media attention on the subject of child sexual abuse in Ireland, so much so that there may be a tendency to automatically assume that the term child abuse is relating to sexual abuse. However, by conceptualising and breaking the term into variables, child abuse captures other aspects which are just as important in their own right. In an editorial from Child Links, Barnardos on the subject of child abuse categories say: Of these, the largest number of cases that come to the attention of the authorities are cases of child neglect. In 2003, of the 4,984 children who were in State care, 24% of these children had been neglected. Yet it is the sexual abuse cases that are highlighted more in the media. (Conroy, p.9). This quote along with the example of the Ryan report demonstrates how the use of variables more readily captures elements of child abuse that might otherwise have been overlooked. Variables are important in identifying aspects of a concept to be studied. There is also a need to measure the information and data accumulated under each variable or show what was used to determine the data. At this juncture the third and final step of the conceptualisation and operationalisation process will be explained. Indicators are measures that should link to the variable. There can be numerous indicators for each variable depending on the research subject. In taking the variable of neglect for example, it could be measured using a number of indicators that may themselves be broken down to further indicators. One indicator may be a physical indicator from which other indicators may be taken, such as loss of weight, poor or inadequate shelter or poor health. Another indicator such as behavioural could be broken down to further indicators such as leaving school early, alcohol abuse or crime. The Disabled Persons Protection Commission in Massachusetts USA (2010) lists twenty-three separate indicators for physical abuse including burns, scalds, bites, cuts and more. Indicators can be used to determine the presence or absence of what is being researched (Geraghty, 2008). However, not all researches may require so many, Bryman (2004) argues that in much quantitative research there may be only one indicator of a concept used. Although indicators are extremely useful in research, care must be taken, especially in areas like child abuse, as even with indicators, signs are not always readily visible. In its national guidelines for the protection and welfare of children (2004) the Department of Health and Children expressed caution on this when issuing their own guidelines. To conclude this section on indicators it is important to understand that the indicator used should stand up to accurate measurement. In social research, validating examines the accuracy of measurement and is considered the most important criterion in social research (Geraghty, 2008). Another important criterion in social research is reliability. Reliability estimates the consistency of procedures used for collecting data even at different times with different subjects (Geraghty, 2008). Validity and Reliability as discussed are key criteria in research and merit a separate paper to fully explain their importance in research studies. The author has introduced them at this point to show that not only are indicators useful in breaking research studies down into manageable portions they are critical components necessary for the validation of a study. This essay commenced by referring to the complexity of undertaking a broad research study. An example of the term poverty was presented as a broad theory that encapsulates many dimensions, such as income poverty and childrens health. The author explained how broad based theories can be broken down into mid range theories through the use of an appropriate research question. The example proffered being, how the reduction of benefits could affect childrens health. This demonstrated that in breaking down the theory of poverty it is easier to determine what exactly the researcher is trying to find out. The author identified this process as conceptualisation. The operationalisation process was then outlined, specifying the importance of understanding how exactly, observation should be conducted. The three main steps of the process of conceptualisation and operationalisation , defining concepts, identifying variables and development indicators were outlined. In doing this, examples of the Murphy and Ryan reports were used to demonstrate all three of these steps. The essay concluded with measurement indicators and stressed their importance not only as tools in observation through measurement but also as vital components of validity and reliability criteria. Although it is possible to undertake a research study without the employment of detailed methodologies, a research can be more focussed with an investigative plan. Whilst this paper did not look at the many and varied tools of research methodology, it did however concentrate on useful and important processes that help ensure that correct and relevant information is gathered. The purpose of any research is to gather information on a subject or social issue. Employing methods that ensure the correct, measurable data is gathered in relation to the subject is well served using the processes of conceptualisation and operationalistion.

A Definition Of Monopoly Economics Essay

A Definition Of Monopoly Economics Essay Monopoly is an industry that has only one firm that sells a good which has no close substitutes. Monopoly firms also represent industries because there are no other firms in the market. Products that are from monopoly market are electricity, water, cable television, local telephone services and many more. Examples of monopoly firm in Malaysia is Tenaga Nasional Berhad, TNBs unique position as a monopoly in the generation, transmission and distribution of electricity in Peninsular Malaysia. TNB is the only firm that provides us electricity to every building in Malaysia. Another monopoly firm in Malaysia that only provide sewerage services is Indah Water Konsortium Sdn Bhd. Indah Water Konsortium is the only firm in Malaysia that mainly responsible for operating and maintaining the public sewage treatment plants and network of underground sewerage pipelines. Characteristics of Monopoly Market One seller and large number of buyers Monopoly market characteristics are they is only one producer or seller in the market and there are many buyers. Therefore, the firm had the power to control the whole market whether it is from the angle of determining the price or the quantity of production. A monopolist has the power to determine the level of price because there is no competition from other firms. Therefore, if the monopolist intends to sell a bigger quantity, it has to reduce the price. This means that the monopolist can only control the price or the quantity of sales, and not both at once. No close substitution Furthermore, monopoly firms goods have no substitutes, its means consumers have no choice other than what is produced by the monopolist and they cant find any substitute of the product. For example, Telekom Malaysia is a firms that provide home telephone services which has no close substitutes but if the buyer can find another firms that provide home telephone service therefore the product is no longer in monopoly. Restriction of entry of new firms All the competitors are prevented from entering the market due to strict barriers to the entry of new firm. To restrict the entry of new firms into the industry, there are barriers to entry that are natural or legal restrictions. There are no competition faces by monopolist is because of barriers of entry. Advertising A monopolist doesnt need to advertise their product or services to increase sales because monopolist had the right to control the market and consumers know where to obtain the products and they have no choice to buy from other producer. Monopoly firms that provide local public utilities such as water, electricity and home phone services doesnt need to advertise since they are the only firms that provide it and customers had no choice to buy it from another firm. Intro to Question 2 It is traditional to divide industries into categories according to the degree of competition that exists between the firms within the industry. There are four such categories. First of all is perfect competition is the market where there is a large number of buyers and seller. The goods sold in the market are homogenous where most of the goods are alike and most likely the same. Therefore, sellers can easily enter and exit from the market. Most of the agricultural goods are included in perfect competition market such as vegetables, fruits, rice, coffee beans, wheat, primary commodities, gold, silver and others. Second will be monopolistic is a market structure in which there are large numbers of small sellers selling differentiated products but these are close substitute products and have easy entry into and exit from the market. Most of the products in monopolistic competition are substitutes and the only differences of the products are such as branding. Unlike perfect competition, in monopolistic competition market, most of the products are different, but goods are close substitutes for one another. Products that are under monopolistic competition are shoes, clothes, books, watches, toothpastes, soaps, ice creams, chocolates and many more. Next will be oligopoly, where it is a market structure in which there are only one firms selling either standardized or differentiated products and it restricts the entry into and exit from the market. Due to difficult or impossible for new firms to enter the market, most of the firms in oligopoly market can earn abnormal profits in long run. Examples for this market are cigarettes, automobiles, electrical equipment and cement Lastly monopoly, where it is only exists when an industry or market has only one producer. Most of the public utility firms are in monopoly market. Features of the four market structures Type of Market Number of Firms Freedom of entry Nature of product Examples Implication for demand curve for firm Perfect competition Very many Unrestricted Homogeneous (Undifferentiated) Cabbages, carrots, local farmer (these approximate to perfect competition) Horizontal. The firm is a price taker. Monopolistic competition Many/several Unrestricted Differentiated Builders, restaurants Downward sloping, but relatively elastic. The firm has some control over price Oligopoly Few Restricted 1. Undifferentiated 2. Differentiated 1. Cement 2. Cars, electrical appliances Downward sloping, relatively inelastic but depends on reactions of rivals to a price change Monopoly One Restricted or completely blocked Unique Public utility Downward sloping, more inelastic than oligopoly, The firm has considerable control over price Comparison of Perfect Competition and Monopolistic Competition Similarities There are large number of firms in both markets. Seller from both markets are easily enter and exit from the market. The firms maximizes profit when MR is equal to MC. Firms from both market may earn economic profit or normal profit or incur losses in short run. While in long run, perfect competitive and monopolistic competitive firms earn only normal profit. Differences of Perfect Competition and Monopolistic Competition The forces of demand and supply for the entire industry determine prices in the perfect competition market. While, in monopolistic competition market, every firm has its own price policy. In can be conclude as perfect competition firms are price takers and monopolistic firms are price makers. A perfect competitive firm sells homogenous products while monopolistic competitive firm sells product that are differentiated product. Product differentiation may lead monopolistic competition in selling cost. There are large number of firms that are in perfect competition while only fairy large number of firms in monopolistic competition. A perfect competitive firms demand curve is perfectly elastic and MR curve is equal to average revenue curve but in monopolistic competitive firm, the demand curve is downward sloping and MR curve is also downward sloping, which lies below the average revenue curve. Differences of Oligopoly and Monopoly Oligopoly is a market structural in which there are a few number of firms in the industry that produce either identical or differentiated product.

Technological Advancements :: essays papers

Technological Advancements On November 7, 1940 the Tacoma Narrows Bridge was hit by winds of up to 40mph. The bridge began to twist and flutter. Some cables snapped and a six-hundred foot section of the bridge fell into Puget Sound. ^Wind is but one disaster, earthquakes are another^ (Jay Stuller 36). Disasters like this one and others could have been avoided if the proper precautions had been taken. Due to the disasters in the world the structures of today and tomorrow are much safer. Today most of these catastrophes are avoided because of the up to date technology, like architecture, predicting the disasters before hand and new techniques used by emergency rescue teams. Some major advances in today^s buildings include such things like the material used. For instance products like steel-reinforced concrete (refer to diagram 3-1), steel framing, and properly braced wood frames for houses are a few examples of how buildings are being retrofitted and new buildings are being built towards protection from disasters. As well, the foundations of the buildings can be built on shock absorbing ^base isolators^ containing springs or alternating layers of steel plates and rubber, to counteract the effects of earthquakes. In Japan architectures have been keeping mind earthquakes while designing and building structures. Unfortunately the buildings were mainly designed to withstand a vertical force. The Japanese buildings were designed to withstand a certain acceleration force, but in January 1995, an earthquake hit the city Kobe devastating the buildings, which were thought to be safe. It just shows, ^that building design criteria are crucial to withstanding effects of earthquakes^ (Gerad Baker 12). The normal Japanese wooden houses that had heavy roofs collapsed, and also newer homes were demolished, as seen on diagram 3-2. This could have been avoided by building the houses with lighter plywood frames with crossbars that distribute force evenly rather than houses with heavy timber walls that collapse under force. As well the materials used to build the structures has a great deal to do with the survival rate of buildings. The use of reinforced concrete is thought to be a major reason why buildings stay intact. It is possible to reinforce older buildings with extra concrete simply and effectively, which has been done in California since 1989. Bridges, a totally different aspect of building, but a very similar method for creating sound structures. During the Kobe earthquake the Hanshin expressway collapsed on its side for a stretch of 600m (pictures seen on page 5). This type of roadway is built upon reinforced concrete pillars. There is steel inside the pillars to increase its ability to bend and flex with the

A Logical and Unemotional Justification of Capital Punishment :: Argumentative Persuasive Argument Essays

A Logical and Unemotional Justification of Capital Punishment Just as the Pied Piper of Hamlin was paid to destroy the rat population, the state prisons are being forced to perform a similar action with what is an overflow of vermin. Taking either a "pro" or an "anti" stance is not something to be done lightly. Most people decide which side they are to take based on purely emotional reasons. Those who support capital punishment do so based on a hatred of the crimes committed, and a fear of similar crimes happening to them. This is not the way to reach a logical decision. Others abhor violence, and feel that two wrongs, namely murder and execution, do not make a right. (although in science, the language of logic, two negatives do make a positive.) Morality, fear, hatred, and ignorance often play a large part in important decisions, dooming society to enforce ridiculous laws, and leaving itself susceptible to rotting from the inside, out. First and foremost, it is important to put our version of capital punishment in an accurate, historical context. Since that dawn of civilization, through the laws of Moses, and the laws of Hammurabi, what you did, was done to you. The advancement of civilization is peppered with this same prevalent idea of reciprocity. To argue against these historic beliefs is to argue against the growth and development inherent in history. If at anytime this law of reciprocation had been ignored, chaos would have been re-introduced into society, creating a premature, and quick, decadence. In comparison, our law of capital punishment is a cake-walk. We do not hack off your hand when we think you take an apple. We do not burn out your eyes when you lust after another man's wife. We do not cut your tongue out and feed it to the lions if you verbalize the name of God. We offer you a trial by your peers, in which you must be proven without a doubt to be guilty. Then, you are locked in a penitentiary, where you can easily be granted an appeal. You exist incarcerated usually for many years, until your appeals have been defeated, the proof against you has been confirmed, and your crimes against humanity are of such a heinous nature that you have condemned yourself to a painless, quick, and easy death.

Computerized Library System Essay

Chromosomal aberrations are disruptions in the normal chromosomal content of a cell and are a major cause of genetic conditions in humans, such as Down syndrome, although most aberrations have little to no effect. Some chromosome abnormalities do not cause disease in carriers, such as translocations, or chromosomal inversions, although they may lead to a higher chance of bearing a child with a chromosome disorder. Abnormal numbers of chromosomes or chromosome sets, called aneuploidy, may be lethal or may give rise to genetic disorders. Genetic counseling is offered for families that may carry a chromosome rearrangement. The gain or loss of DNA from chromosomes can lead to a variety of genetic disorders. Human examples include: * Cri du chat, which is caused by the deletion of part of the short arm of chromosome 5. â€Å"Cri du chat† means â€Å"cry of the cat† in French; the condition was so-named because affected babies make high-pitched cries that sound like those of a cat. Affected individuals have wide-set eyes, a small head and jaw, moderate to severe mental health issues, and are very short. * Down syndrome, the most common trisomy, usually caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21 (trisomy 21). Characteristics include decreased muscle tone, stockier build, asymmetrical skull, slanting eyes and mild to moderate developmental disability.[51] * Edwards syndrome, or trisomy-18, the second-most-common trisomy.[citation needed]Symptoms include motor retardation, developmental disability and numerous congenital anomalies causing serious health problems. Ninety percent of those affected die in infancy. They have characteristic clenched hands and overlapping fingers. * Isodicentric 15, also called idic(15), partial tetrasomy 15q, or inverted duplication 15 (inv dup 15). * Jacobsen syndrome, which is very rare. It is also called the terminal 11q deletion disorder.[52] Those affected have normal intelligence or mild developmental disability, with poor expressive language skills. Most have a bleeding disorder called Paris-Trousseau syndrome. * Klinefelter’s syndrome (XXY). Men with Klinefelter syndrome are usually sterile, and tend to be taller and have longer arms and legs than their peers. Boys with the syndrome are often shy and quiet, and have a higher incidence of speech delay and dyslexia. Without testosterone treatment, some may develop gynecomastia during puberty. * Patau Syndrome, also called D-Syndrome or trisomy-13. Symptoms are somewhat similar to those of trisomy-18, without the characteristic folded hand. * Small supernumerary marker chromosome. This means there is an extra, abnormal chromosome. Features depend on the origin of the extra genetic material. Cat-eye syndrome and isodicentric chromosome 15 syndrome (or Idic15) are both caused by a supernumerary marker chromosome, as is Pallister-Killian syndrome. * Triple-X syndrome (XXX). XXX girls tend to be tall and thin and have a higher incidence of dyslexia. * Turner syndrome (X instead of XX or XY). In Turner syndrome, female sexual characteristics are present but underdeveloped. Females with Turner syndrome often have a short stature, low hairline, abnormal eye features and bone development and a â€Å"caved-in† appearance to the chest. * XYY syndrome. XYY boys are usually taller than their siblings. Like XXY boys and XXX girls, they are more likely to have learning difficulties. * Wolf-Hirschhorn syndrome, which is caused by partial deletion of the short arm of chromosome 4. It is characterized by severe growth retardation and severe to profound mental health issues. Cri du chat syndrome, also known as chromosome 5p deletion syndrome, 5p minus syndrome or Lejeune’s syndrome, is a rare genetic disorder due to a missing part ofchromosome 5. Its name is a French term (cat-cry or call of the cat) referring to the characteristic cat-like cry of affected children. It was first described by Jà ©rà ´me Lejeune in 1963.[1] The condition affects an estimated 1 in 50,000 live births, strikes all ethnicities, and is more common in females by a 4:3 ratio. Signs and symptoms The syndrome gets its name from the characteristic cry of affected infants, which is similar to that of a meowing kitten, due to problems with the larynx and nervous system. About 1/3 of children lose the cry by age 2. Other symptoms of cri du chat syndrome may include: * feeding problems because of difficulty swallowing and sucking. * low birth weight and poor growth. * severe cognitive, speech, and motor delays. * behavioral problems such as hyperactivity, aggression, tantrums, and repetitive movements. * unusual facial features which may change over time. * excessive drooling. * constipation. ————————————————- Genetics Cri du chat syndrome is due to a partial deletion of the short arm of chromosome number 5, also called â€Å"5p monosomy†. Approximately 90% of cases results from a sporadic, or randomly-occurring, de novo deletion. The remaining 10-15% are due to unequal segregation of a parental balanced translocation where the 5p monosomy is often accompanied by a trisomic portion of the genome. These individuals may have more severe disease than those with isolated monosomy of 5p. Most cases involve total loss of the most distant 20-10% of the material on the short arm. Fewer than 10% of cases have other rare cytogenetic aberrations (e.g., interstitial deletions, mosaicisms, rings and de novo translocations). The deleted chromosome 5 is paternal in origin in about 80% of de novo cases. Loss of a small region in band 5p15.2 (cri du chat critical region) correlates with all the clinical features of the syndrome with the exception of the catlike cry, which maps to band 5p15.3 (catlike critical region). The results suggest that 2 noncontiguous critical regions contain genes involved in this condition’s etiology. Two genes in these regions, Semaphorine F (SEMA5A) and delta catenin(CTNND2), are potentially involved in cerebral development. The deletion of the telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT) gene localized in 5p15.33 may contribute to the phenotypic changes in cri du chat syndrome as well. people with cri du chat syndrome Down syndrome (DS) or Down’s syndrome, also known as trisomy 21, is achromosomal condition caused by the presence of all or part of a third copy ofchromosome 21.[1] Down syndrome is the most common chromosome abnormality in humans.[2] It is typically associated with a delay in cognitive ability (mental retardation, or MR) and physical growth, and a particular set of facial characteristics.[1] The average IQ of young adults with Down syndrome is around 50, compared to children without the condition with an IQ of 100.[1][3] (MR has historically been defined as an IQ below 70.) A large proportion of individuals with Down syndrome have a severe degree of intellectual disability. Genetics Karyotype for trisomy Down syndrome. Notice the three copies of chromosome 21 Down syndrome disorders are based on having too many copies of the genes located on chromosome 21. In general, this leads to an overexpression of the genes.[54] Understanding the genes involved may help to target medical treatment to individuals with Down syndrome. It is estimated that chromosome 21 contains 200 to 250 genes.[55] Recent research has identified a region of the chromosome that contains the main genes responsible for the pathogenesis of Down syndrome.[56] The extra chromosomal material can come about in several distinct ways. A typical human karyotype is designated as 46,XX or 46,XY, indicating 46 chromosomes with an XX arrangement typical of females and 46 chromosomes with an XY arrangement typical of males.[57] In 1–2% of the observed Down syndromes.[58] some of the cells in the body are normal and other cells have trisomy 21, this is called mosaic Down syndrome (46,XX/47,XX,+21).[59] [60] Trisomy 21 Trisomy 21 (47,XX,+21) is caused by a meiotic nondisjunction event. With nondisjunction, agamete (i.e., a sperm or egg cell) is produced with an extra copy of chromosome 21; the gamete thus has 24 chromosomes. When combined with a normal gamete from the other parent, the embryo now has 47 chromosomes, with three copies of chromosome 21. Trisomy 21 is the cause of approximately 95% of observed Down syndromes, with 88% coming from nondisjunction in the maternal gamete and 8% coming from nondisjunction in the paternal gamete.[58] The actual Down syndrome â€Å"critical region† encompasses chromosome bands 21q22.1-q22.3.[61] Edwards syndrome (also known as Trisomy 18 (T18) or Trisomy E) is a genetic disordercaused by the presence of all or part of an extra 18th chromosome. It is named after John H. Edwards, who first described the syndrome in 1960.[1] It is the second most commonautosomal trisomy, after Down syndrome, that carries to term. Edwards syndrome occurs in around one in 6,000 live births and around 80 percent of those affected are female.[2] The majority of fetuses with the syndrome die before birth.[2]The incidence increases as the mother’s age increases. The syndrome has a very low rate of survival, resulting from heart abnormalities, kidney malformations, and other internal organ disorders. Signs and symptoms Children born with Edwards syndrome may have some or all of the following characteristics: kidney malformations, structural heart defects at birth (i.e., ventricular septal defect, atrial septal defect, patent ductus arteriosus), intestines protruding outside the body (omphalocele), esophageal atresia, mental retardation, developmental delays, growth deficiency, feeding difficulties, breathing difficulties, and arthrogryposis (a muscle disorder that causes multiple joint contractures at birth).[3][4] Some physical malformations associated with Edwards syndrome include small head (microcephaly) accompanied by a prominent back portion of the head (occiput); low-set, malformed ears; abnormally small jaw (micrognathia); cleft lip/cleft palate; upturned nose; narrow eyelid folds (palpebral fissures); widely spaced eyes (ocular hypertelorism); drooping of the upper eyelids (ptosis); a short breast bone; clenched hands; choroid plexus cysts; underdeveloped thumbs and or nails,absent radius, webbing of the second and third toes; clubfoot or Rocker bottom feet; and in males, undescended testicles. of choroid plexus cysts, which are pockets of fluid on the brain. These are not problematic in themselves, but their presence may be a marker for trisomy Genetics Edwards syndrome is a chromosomal abnormality characterized by the presence of an extra copy of genetic material on the 18th chromosome, either in whole (trisomy 18) or in part (such as due to translocations). The additional chromosome usually occurs beforeconception. The effects of the extra copy vary greatly, depending on the extent of the extra copy, genetic history, and chance. Edwards syndrome occurs in all human populations but is more prevalent in female offspring.[7] A healthy egg and/or sperm cell contains individual chromosomes, each of which contributes to the 23 pairs of chromosomes needed to form a normal cell with a typical human karyotype of 46 chromosomes. Numerical errors can arise at either of the two meiotic divisions and cause the failure of a chromosome to segregate into the daughter cells (nondisjunction). This results in an extra chromosome, making the haploid number 24 rather than 23. Fertilization of eggs or insemination by sperm that contain an extra chromosome results in trisomy, or three copies of a chromosome rather than two.[8] Trisomy 18 (47,XX,+18) is caused by a meiotic nondisjunction event. With nondisjunction, a gamete (i.e., a sperm or egg cell) is produced with an extra copy of chromosome 18; the gamete thus has 24 chromosomes. When combined with a normal gamete from the other parent, the embryo has 47 chromosomes, with three copies of chromosome 18. with edwards syndrome Isodicentric 15, also called idic(15), partial tetrasomy 15q, or inverted duplication 15 (inv dup 15), is a chromosome abnormalityin which a child is born with extra genetic material from chromosome 15. People with idic(15) are typically born with 47 chromosomes in their body cells, instead of the normal 46. The extra chromosome is made up of a piece of chromosome 15 that has been duplicated end-to-end like a mirror image. It is the presence of this extra genetic material that is thought to account for the symptoms seen in some people with idic(15). Individuals with idic(15) have a total of four copies of this chromosome 15 region instead of the usual two copies (1 copy each on the maternal and paternal chromosomes). The extra chromosome is rarely found in mosaic state, i.e. some of the cells carry the marker chromosome. However, mostly because of the marker’s instability and tendency to be lost during cell division (mitosis), some cells are completely normal with 46 chromosomes. Occasionally, cells may have more than one idic(15), resulting in 48 or 49 chromosomes in all or some of their cells. A similar clinical picture albeit to a milder degree could be expected in individuals that have the extra chromosome 15 material as an interstitial duplication; not as a marker chromosome; thus having 46 chromosomes.[1][2] Signs and symptoms Individuals with idic(15) have delays in language development and motor skills such as walking or sitting up. Other traits may include low muscle tone (hypotonia), seizures, short stature, and mental retardation. Distinctive facial features associated with idic(15) may include epicanthal folds (skin folds at the inner corners of the eyes), a flattened nasal bridge, button nose, and a high arched palate (roof of the mouth). Some individuals with idic(15) also have features of autism, such as problems with communication, social interactions, and repetitive and stereotyped behaviors (e.g., lining up toys, playing with a toy in the same manner over and over again, hand flapping, rocking back and forth). These are some mild features but with a severe person there may be more such as inability to talk at all. Genetics Generally, idic(15) is not inherited; it is said to appear de novo; in one member of the family, by chance. In most cases, the abnormal chromosome is generated in the mother’s germ cells; oocytes. This finding is due to ascertainment bias; i.e. cases with maternally derived idic(15) usually have clinical findings and attract attention but those with paternally derived idic(15) usually do not. Thus, established cases are usually patients with maternally inherited idic (15).[4] . The smallest markers appear to be harmless and they may go undetected. However, if they are large enough to contain a number of important genes, they may result in â€Å"idic(15) syndrome† which is characterized by mental retardation, autism and other neurological symptoms.[5] One of the regions responsible for the symptoms of idic(15)syndrome is the critical PWS/AS-region named after the Prader-Willi and/or Angelman syndromes. Jacobsen Syndrome, also known as 11q deletion disorder, is a rare congenital disorder resulting from deletion of a terminal region of chromosome 11 that includes band 11q24.1. It can cause intellectual disabilities, a distinctive facial appearance, and a variety of physical problems including heart defects and a bleeding disorder. The syndrome was first identified by Danish physician Petra Jacobsen,[1] and is believed to occur in approximately 1 out of every 100,000 births. Possible characteristics * Heart defects * Mild to severe intellectual disabilities * Low-platelets (thrombocytopenia) * Facial/skeletal (dysplasia) * Wide-set eyes caused by trigonocephaly * Folding of the skin near the eye (epicanthus) * Short, upturned nose (anteverted nostrils) * Thin lips that curve inward * Displaced receding chin (retrognathia) * Low-set, misshapen ears * Permanent upward curvature of the pinkie and ring fingers (camptodactyly) * Large great toes/Hammer toes Klinefelter’s syndrome, 47, XXY, or XXY syndrome is a condition in which a human has an extra X chromosome. While females have an XX chromosomal makeup, and males an XY, affected individuals have at least two X chromosomes and at least one Y chromosome.[1] Because of the extra chromosome, individuals with the condition are usually referred to as â€Å"XXY Males†, or â€Å"47, XXY Males†.[2] This chromosome constitution (karyotype) exists in roughly between 1:500 to 1:1000 live male births[3][4] but many of these people may not show symptoms. The physical traits of the syndrome become more apparent after the onset of puberty, if at all.[5] In humans, 47,XXY is the most common sex chromosome aneuploidy in males[6] and the second most common condition caused by the presence of extra chromosomes. Other mammals also have the XXY syndrome, including mice. Patau syndrome, also known as trisomy 13 and trisomy D, is a chromosomalabnormality, a syndrome in which a patient has an additional chromosome 13 due to anondisjunction of chromosomes during meiosis. Some are caused by Robertsonian translocations, while others are caused by mosaic Patau syndrome. The extra chromosome 13 disrupts the normal course of development, causing heart and kidney defects, amongst other features characteristic of Patau syndrome.[vague] Like allnondisjunction conditions (such as Down syndrome and Edwards syndrome), the risk of this syndrome in the offspring increases with maternal age at pregnancy, with about 31 years being the average.[1] Patau syndrome affects somewhere between 1 in 10,000 and 1 in 21,700 live births.